Moles to Volume Conversion

- At a specific pressure and temperature one more of every gas has the same volume
- At 0 degrees celsius and 101.3kPa 1mol = 22.4L
- This Temperature and pressure is called STP
- 22.4L/mol is the molar volume at STP
ex
2.5mol x 22.4L = 56L
               1 mol

11.6L x 1 mol = 0.518mol
             22.4L

11.5mol x 22.4L = 258L
                1 mol

1cc = 1mL
1cm^3 = 1mL

- JanCarlo Paysan

converting from moles to molecules

converting 2 moles of Au

like converting distance:
  
2 mol x 6.02x10^23 
                  1 mol

the mole's cancel each other out so you get  

2      x 6.02x10^23      = 12.01x10^23    = 12.0x10^23
                   1


you multiply and then convert to significant digits.

-Paul Dinh

Molar Mass (Mass of Atoms)

•The mass (in grams) of 1 mole of a substance is called the molar mass.
•It can be determined from the atomic mass on the periodic table
•Measured in g/mol
*Molar Mass* -The atomic weight of an element expressed in grams is the mass of one mole of the element. 

Molar Mass of Compounds

•To determine the molar mass of a compound add the mass of all the atoms together.

-Paulo Santillan

Avrogado's Number (How we count atoms)

•Atoms & molecules are extremely small
•Macroscopic objects contain too many to count or weigh individually
•Amedeo Avrogado proposed that the # of atoms 12.00000g of Carbon be equal to a constant (This is equal to 1 mol of Carbon)
•This value is now called Avrogado's Number & froms the basis of all quantitative chemistry.
• Avrogado's Number → 1mol = 6.02x10^23
•One mole is simply a multiple of things, such as:
∟1 pair = 2
∟1 dozen = 12
∟1 century = 100
∟1 mol = 6.02x10^23
•One mole represents a huge # of particles:
Particle                                                                                                                         
•Atoms                       Element                             6.02x10^23             Fe
                                                                                1 mol                                                             
•Molecules                 Covalent Compound            6.02x10^23             CO2     
                                                                                1 mol                                                                 
•Formula Unit             Ionic Compound                 6.02x10^23              NaCl
                                                                                1 mol
_____________________________________________________________________________
                     

 

                              

-Paulo Santillan  

Chem Lab

in lab we did we had to pick a hydrate and follow the steps
1) we had to weight the empty dry test tube
2) we had to weight the test tube with the hydrate in it
3) we had to light the bunsen burner
4) we had to boil all the water out of the hydrate
5) once we boiled all the water out we had to weigh the hydrate again
6) we calculated how much grams of water was boiled off and how much percent of water the hydrate was
7) we had to calculate our percent error for the percentage of water boiled off

- JanCarlo Paysan

Naming Compunds

Chemical Nomenclature

•IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) is today's most common system for most chemicals.
∟ Ions
∟ Binary Ionic
∟ Polyatomic Ions
∟ Hydrates
∟ Molecular Compounds
∟ Acids / Bases

Chemical Formulas
•Be aware of the differences btwn. ion & compound formulas:
EX: Zn^2+ → Ion charge (Zinc Ion)
BaCl2 → Number of Ions
F^- = Fluoride Ion
N^3- = Nitride Ion
0^2 = Oxide Ion
-Hydrogen (Hydride) = Both metallic & non-metallic

Multivalent Ions

•Some elements can form more than one ion:
EX: Iron → Fe^3+ / Fe^2+
Copper → Cu^2+ / Cu^+
•The top # on the P.T is more common
•IUPAC uses roman numerals in parenthesis to show the charge
•Classical systems uses latin names of elements & suffixes -ic(larger charge) & -ous(smaller charge)
EX: Ferr(ic) Oxide → Fe2O3 (Fe^3+)
Ferr(ous) Oxide → FeO (Fe^2+)

Other Classical Names

•Ferr= Iron •Aunn= Gold
•Cupp= Copper •Plumb= Lead
•Mercur= Mercury •Wolf= Tungsten
•Stann= Tin •Argent= Silver

Hydrates

•Some compounds can form lattices that bond to water molecules.
∟Copper Sulfate ∟Sodium Sulfate
•These crystals contain water inside them which can be released by heating
•To name hydrates
1) Write name of the chemical formula
2) Add a prefix indicating the number of water molecules (mono=1/di=2/tri=3/etc)
3) Add hydrate after the prefix
EX: Cu(SO4)•5H2O(s)
∟Copper(II) Sulphate
∟5 Water
∟pentahydrate

-Paulo Santillan

Electronic Structure ( Electron Dot Diagrams)

Drawing Electron Dot Diagrams
- The nucleus is represented by the atomic symbol
- For individual elements determine the number of valence electrons
- Electrons are represented by dots around teh symbol
- Four orbitals (one of each side of the nucleus) each holding a maximum of 2e-
- Each orbital gets 1e- before they pair up



Lewis Diagrams for Compounds & Ions
- In covalent compounds electrons are shared
1) Determine the # of valence e- for each atom in the molecule
2) Place atoms so that valence electrons are shared to fill each orbital

Ionic Compounds
- In ionic compounds electrons transfer from one element to another
1) Determine the # of valence electrons on the cation (+)
2) Move these to the anion (-)
3) Draw [ ] around the metal and non-metal
4) Write the Changes

- JanCarlo Paysan

Tends on the periodic table

-Elements close to each other on the periodic table displays similar characteristics
-There are 7 important periodic trends:
1. Reactivity
- metals and non-metals show diffrent trends
- the most reactive metal is Francium; the most reactive non metal is Flourine
2. Ion charge
-element ion charge depends on their group name

3. Melting point
1. Elements in the center of the table of the highest melting point
- noble gases have the lowest melting points
- starting from the left and moving right, melting point increases(until middle of the table)
4.Atomic Radius
- radius decrease as you love to the upper right
- Helium has the smallest radius
- Francium has the biggest radius
5. Ionization energy
- ionization energy is the energy needed to completely remove an electron from an atom
- it increases going up and to the right
- all noble gases have high ionization energy
- Helium has the highest ionization energy
- Francium has the lowest ionization energy
- opposite trend from atomic radius
6. Electronegativity
- electronegativity refers to how much atoms want to gain electrons
- follows the same trend as ionization energy
7. Density (not taught during class)


-Paul Dinh

Isotopes & Atoms

Atomic number : Number of Protons
Atomic mass - atomic number = # of neutrons
Isotopes - same atomic number but different mass
ex 3 types of hydrogen atoms
1H 2H 3H
(1p)(1p,1n)(1p,2n)
not all atoms of same element are identical

ex
Isotope | Mass # | Atomic # | # of Protons | # of Neutrons
54Fe | 54 | 26 | 26 | 28
66Mn | 56 | 25 | 25 | 31
237Np | 237 | 93 | 93 | 144
14C | 14 | 6 | 6 | 8

Mass Spectrometers
- used to determine the relative abundance and mass of isotopes of elements

(mass spectrometer and how it works)

- JanCarlo Paysan

Quantum Mechanics

Bohr Theory
- The electron is a particle that must be in orbital in the atom

Quantum Theory
- The electron is a cloud of negative charge or a wave function
- Orbitals are areas in 3D space where the electrons most probably are
- The energy of the electrons is in its vibrational modes - like notes on a guitar string
- Photons are produced when high energy modes change to lower energy modes

S Orbitals
-each holds 2 electrons

P Orbitals
- There are 3 suborbitals
- Each contains 2 electrons
- Total = 6 electrons

D Orbitals
- There are 5 suborbitals
- Each contains 2 electrons
- Total = 10 electrons

F Orbitals
- There are 7 suborbitals
- Each contains 2 electrons
- Total = 14 electrons

(orbital shapes)

- JanCarlo Paysan

Bohr Diagrams

1) Draw the bohr diagram for the element F
Protons = 9 2e
Atomic Mass = 19 2e
Neutrons = 19-9 = 10 (9p,10n)

2) Draw the bohr diagram for the element Ca
Protons = 20 2e
Atomic Mass = 40.1 8e
Neutrons = 40.1 - 20 = 20.1 8e
2e
(20p,20n)

-Atoms are electrically neutral
-Two different models can be used to describe electron configuration
- energy level model
- Bohr model
-Electrons occupy shells which are divided into orbitals
- 2e in the first orbital
- 8e in the second orbital
- 8e in the third orbital

(examples of bohr diagrams)

- JanCarlo Paysan

Bohr's Diagrams

Bohr (1920)
-Rutherford'd model was inherently unstable
 - Protons & electrons should attract eachother
- Matter emits light when it is heated (blackbody radiation)
- Light travels as photons
- the energy photons carry depends on their wavelength

Separate the white light into colours with a diffraction granting or prism

Each line represents a photon of light emitted from the excited atom
These are unique sets of lines for each element

-Bohr based his model on the energy (light) emitted by different atoms
- Each atom has a specific spectrum of light
Examples of different atom spectrums of light:

Bohr's theory
- Electrons exist in orbitals
- When they absorb energy they move to a higher orbital
- As they fall from a higher orbital to a lower one they release energy as a photon of light

- JanCarlo Paysan

Density & Graphing

Density
- The density of an object is its mass divided by its volume
  - d=m/v
     - Usually expressed in : kg/L, kg/m^3, kg/m^2
     - Examples : d= 135kg / 65L = 2.1kg/L
                            d= 54kg / 27m^3 = 2kg/m^3
                            d= 1200kg / 51m^2 =24kg/m^2

Graphing
*All graphs must contain 5 important things*
1) Labelled Axis
2) Appropriate Scale
3) Title
4) Data Points
5) Line of Best Fit
Example of proper graph :

- Three things can be done when working with graphs
1) Reading the graphs
2) Find the slope (rise/run)
3) Find the area under the graph

- Linear Graph :

- Inverse Graph :

- JanCarlo Paysan

Unit and Dimensional Analysis

4 steps how to convert units

1. Identify Solution
2.Find Conversion Factors
3. Place units in the right order and place
4. Cancel out the units


ex:
You want to convert 35 € to Canadian currency

To convert distance over time:
You want to change kilometers per hour to meters per second

It is crucial to learn how to convert units correctly in science, for more examples, click here
- Paul

Significant Digits & Scientific Notation

Significant Digits

The certain digits and the estimated digit of a measurement are together
Not all digits are significant
-All numbers other than zero are significant
-Place saving zeros aren't significant (decimals)
∟0.005= 1 S.D. ∟0.0050= 2 S.D.
When multiplying and dividing:
-round your answer to the lowest number of S.D in the initial numbers

When adding and subtracting:
-round to the lowest decimal place from the original numbers

Scientific Notation

When writing in scientific notation, numbers split into 2 parts:
-Number btwn. 1→10
-Power of ten
∟1000 = 10 x 10 x 10 = 10^3

-Paulo Santillan

Measurement and Error

SI Unit Prefixes, Multiples, and Symbols:

SI Base Units:

Base unit: A fundamental unit that is defined arbitrarily and not by combinations of other units. The base units of the SI system are the meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela.

Derived Units:

Derived Unit: combinations of base units used to measure area, volume, force, pressure, energy, power, voltage, frequency, and electric current.

Error
- Error is a fundamental part of science
- There are usually 3 reasons for error
- Physical errors in the measuring device
- "sloppy" measuring
- Changing factors

- 2 ways to calculate Error
- Absolute Error
- Formula : Absolute Error = Measured Value - Accepted Value
- Percent Error
- Formula :

- JanCarlo Paysan

Chemistry Units Joke

Q: What is the world's most smallest animal?
A: A "nano"-mole

-Paulo Santillan :D

Classification of Chemicals

Understanding matter begins w/ how we name it. We can divide matter into 2 types:
-Homogeneous: Consists of only one visible compound
-ex: distilled water, oxygen, graphite
-Heterogeneous: Contains more than one visible component
-ex: chocolate chip cookie, granite

Pure Substances

There are 2 types of Pure Substances:
-Elements: Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions
-ex: oxygen, iron, magnesium
-Compounds: Substances that are made up of 2/more elements and can be changed into elements (or other compounds) by chemical reactions
-water(H2O), sugar(C12H22O11)

H2O + energy → (H2) + (O2)
∟ compounds split apart(by adding energy)

Telling the Difference

To identify an element or compound, the difference is only "visible" on the atomic level
One method is to connect the substance to an electric current.
-(Electrolysis) can split the compound apart into its constituent elements

Solution

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of 2/more substances
-Usually involve liquids (not always, like fog & steel)
The component present in greater amount is the solvent
-Water is most common solvent
-The symbol (aq) is used when something is dissolved
The component present in smaller amount is the solute

Mixtures

Mixtures can be easily identified, or can be confused as pure substances
-Heterogeneous mixtures, different parts clearly visible (granite, sand fog)
-Homogeneous mixtures, different parts aren't visible (salt water, air, brass)

Separating Mixtures

Many methods to separate mixtures, depending on type:
-By hand
-Filtration*
-Distillation*
-Crystallization
-Chromatography

^All physical changes
*Heterogeneous mixtures only

-Paulo Santillan

Physical and Chemical Change pt. 2

Today we examined the chemical reaction when lead nitrate and pottasium iodide was mixed together to form a yellow dye. We observed little crystal like balls accumulate resulting from the mix.

-Paul

Physical & Chemical Changes

Matter can undergo many changes
3 Categories
- Physical Changes
- Chemical Changes
- Nuclear Changes

Physical Changes
- Involves changing shape or state of matter
   - ex. crushing, tearing, ect....
- No new substances are formed
   - ex. boiling water, cutting wood, smashing cars, etc..

Phase Changets
- Changing from a solid to a gas can often be confused as a chemical change
   - chemicals remain the same
During the melting process chemicals usually follow this path

Chemical Change
- New substances are form
-Properties of the matter change
   -conductivity, acidity, colour, etc..
   -ex. iron rusting, burning wood, digesting food

Changes in Physical State
- Solid to Gas = Sublimation
- Solid to Liquid = Melting
- Liquid to Solid = Solidification / Freezing
- Liquid to Gas = Evaporation
- Gas to Liquid = Condensation
- Gas to Solid = Deposition / Sublimation

- JanCarlo Paysan

Blancing and Word Equations

*Phase symbols are subscripts that indicate the phase of the chemical.
ex. Al(s), H2O(l), H2(g), AgNO3(aq)

• (s) -----> Solid

• (l) ------> Liquid

• (g)-----> Gas

• (aq)----> Aqueous 

*in chem 11 a solution means something is dissolved in water therefore it is aqueous

*Diatomic Molecules

• H2   Hydrogen                                 *Polyatomic Molecules*
• O2   Oxygen                                           - P4 Phosphorus
• F2    Fluorine                                          - S8 Sulphur
• Br2  Bromine
• I2      Iodine
• N2    Nitrogen
• Cl2   Chlorine

Example of a Word Equation to a Balanced Equation

Word Equation : "a solution of barium phosphate is mixed with aqueous sodium sulphate to yield solid barium sulphate and aqueous sodium phosphate"


Balanced Equation: Ba3(PO4)2(aq) + 3Na2SO4(aq) ---> 3BaSO4(s) + 2Na3PO4(aq)

-JanCarlo Paysan

Safety Rules in a Lab

1) Work "only" under teacher supervision
2) Follow your Teacher's directions
3) Read all instructions and procedures
4) Notify your Teacher of any problems
5) Know how to use the Safety Equipment and materials in the Laboratory
6)Wear approved Safety Goggles and Lab coat
7)Wear proper shoes (no open toes)
8) Tie your hair back if you have long hair
9) Don't leave any unnecessary things out in the open, place them under a table (ex: bags)

10)Avoid making any awkward transfers with the chemicals used

11)"If it's Hot, Let it Cool"

12)Carry chemicals with extreme caution

13) No fooling around! (especially during experiments)

14)Dispose of chemical wastes properly

15) Make sure all equipment used during a lab is safe and "usable"
16) Throw away any broken glass
17) If on fire or any chemicals get on you, make sure you know how to use the shower head/ eye wash
18) Read chemical labels on glass
19)Don't taste anything
20) Food, drinks, and gum are prohibited
21) Do not look directly at test tubes
22) Don't directly smell chemicals, waft a small scent only
23) Clean up Afterward

-Paulo Santillan